Journal Press India®

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Review
Vol 1 , Issue 1 , January - June 2026 | Pages: 41-62 | Research Paper

Comparative Analysis of Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) Models in India and Sri Lanka

Author Details ( * ) denotes Corresponding author

1. Freeda Maria Swarna M., Director, Dharthi NGO, Bangalore, Karnataka, India (freedadharthi@gmail.com)
2. Athula C. Gnanapala, Professor, Department of Management Studies, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka (gnanapala@mgt.sab.ac.lk)
3. R. Kannan, Professor and Director ®, Centre for Tourism and Hotel Management, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, India (saru.kannan@gmail.com)
4. * Shaheed Khan, Head, Research and Training, Dharthi NGO, Bangalore, Karnataka, India (shaheeddharthi@gmail.com)

Sustainable tourism appears innovative when we look at community based ecotourism leveraged through the special purpose vehicles. However, the intricate functioning and management dynamics of these models remain underexplored particularly in India and Sri Lanka. The research undertakes a comparative analysis of CBET SPVs in India and Sri Lanka, examining eight ecotourism destinations across these two countries. The research aims to uncover the operational nuances and management practices that underpin these models, providing insights into their adaptability and potential application in diverse tourism ecosystems. By generating data and assessing the eight CBET models, this study offers a valuable resource for academics, researchers, and practitioners. It aims to advance the mission of CBET by identifying replicable best practices and strategies for SPV implementation in other global destinations. The researchers, recognized for their expertise in CBET, conducted extensive field visits to the selected destinations. They engaged with local communities, tourism stakeholders, and government and non-government agencies involved in supporting qualitative CBET initiatives through SPVs. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study analyzed the structure, functioning, livelihood impacts, and overall effectiveness of these models. The study highlights opportunities to enhance CBET practices and develop innovative constructs, models, and frameworks. These findings are tested and validated in real-world settings, contributing to the evolution of community-driven tourism systems while fostering sustainable livelihoods.

Keywords

Community, Ecotourism, Landscapes, Livelihoods, Sustainable Tourism

  1. Amrita, Agni (2023, May 4) Is Bastar Safe for Tourists? 12 terrific reasons to visit Bastar. Available at https://www.taleof2backpackers.com/is-bastar-safe/#:~:text=If%20you%20want%20our%20one,safe%20to%20travel%20to%20Bastar.
  2. Audley (n.d.) Visit Passikudah, Sri Lanka.  Retrieved from https://www.audleytravel.com/sri-lanka/places-to-go/passikudah#:~:text=It%20is%20famous%20for%20its,of%20coastline%20in%20the%20east
  3. Bhattacharya, Prodyut, (2017) Redefining Forestry for Effective Livelihoods, The Energy and Resources Institute, (TERI), New Delhi.  ISBN: 9788179935316.
  4. Buultjens, Jeremy; Ratnayke, Iraj and Gnanapala, Athula (2016) Whale watching in Sri Lanka: Perceptions of sustainability.  Tourism Management Perspectives 18, 125-133.  DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2016.02.003
  5. Buultjens, Jeremy; Ratnayke, Iraj; Gnanapala, Athula and Nedelea, Alexandru-Mircea (2018) Whale watching tourism in Sri Lanka: Visitor Satisfaction and Behavioural Characteristics.  Journal of tourism-studies and research in tourism. 24, 22-33.  Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322234621_Journal_of_tourism-studies_and_research_in_tourism_Issue_24_22
  6. Chaoji, Anirudh (2019, April 4) Personal Communication [Discussion].
  7. Dassanayake, DMC., (2023) Local insights into Rural Tourism: A Study of Heeloya in the Knuckles Mountain Range.  Journal of the University of Ruhuna.  11(2), 64-75.  DOI: https://doi.org/10.4038/jur.v11i2.8016
  8. Dharmasena, M.D.M., Dharmaratne, D., Lankeshwari, S., and Siriwardena S. (2023) Economic and Environmental impact of tourism on coastal areas based on Mirissa.  Journal of Tourism and Hospitality 12(4). 1-9
  9. Dharmasheel, Ghanvir (2023, March 21) Personal Communication [Interview].
  10. Dissanayake D.M.M.I., & Samarathunga, W.H.M.S., (2015) Prospects and challenges of community-based tourism promotion in Mihintale Area.  International Research Symposium Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.  Retrieved from
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331589834_Prospects_and_Challenges_of_Community_Based_Tourism_Promotion_in_Mihintale_Area
  12. Ecolex (n.d.) The gateway to environmental law.  Sea Mammals (Observation, Regulation and Control) Regulations, No. 1 of 2012.  Retrieved from https://www/ecolex.org/details/legislation/sea-mammals-observation-regulation-and-control-regulations-no-1-of-2012-lex-faoc133799/
  13. Eranda, Nuresh and Niroshana, Sanjaya (2019) Agro tourism for rural development with a marketing-oriented approach: An exploratory case study.  Sri Lanka Journal of Management Studies 1(2), 16-28.  DOI: https://doi.org/10.4038/sljms.v1i2.46
  14. Farrington, John and Mitchell, Jonathan (2006) How can the rural poor participate in global economic processes.  Overseas Development Institute.  Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ivc/docs/ODI.pdf
  15. Ghosh, Saumyajit (2018) Role of joint forest management and eco development committees in the bio-diversity conservation of Jaldapara National Park in Alipurduar District of West Bengal, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 6(1), 155-165.eISSN 23481269
  16. Gnanapala, W.K., Athula and Sandaruwani, J.A.R.C., (2016). Socio-economic Impacts of Tourism Development and Their Implications on Local Communities, International Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 2(5), 59-67, http://www.aiscience.org/journal/ijeba 
  17. Gnanapala, W.K., Athula and Karunathilaka, Thusara Pradeep (2016) Community perception on Tourism Development and its impacts: A Study on Passikudha, Sri Lanka.  Tourism, Leisure and Global Change.  Volume 3. Retrieved from https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20173155196
  18. Gnanapala, C., Athula; Swarna M., Freeda Maria; Gupta, Vijay Prakash & Khan, Shaheed (2026).  Marine Protected Areas and International Agreements for Sustainability: A Case Study of Gulf of Mannar.  (Eds.). Gupta, Vijay Prakash; Reyed M., Reyed & Haghi, A.K. (2026). The Blue Economy and Environmental Sustainability: Advancing Global Governance, Innovation, and Finance for Resilient Future.  Pgs. 97-125. Springer Nature, World Sustainability Series.  DOI:  https://www.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-13638-1_5
  19. Goodman, R.M., Speers, M.A., McLeroy, K., Fawcett, S., Kegler, M., Parker, E., Smith, S.R., Sterling, T., & Wallerstein, N (1998) Identifying and defining the dimension of Community Capacity Building to provide a base for measurement.  Health Education and Behavior Journal, 25(3), 258 – 278. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/109019819802500303
  20. Gurusinghe, Rohan (2024, June 18) Personal Communication [Discussion].
  21. Kaldeen, Mubarak & Hassan, H.F., Nuskiya (2019) Socio-Environment impact on Coastal Tourism: a case of Pasikudah in East Coast of Sri Lanka.  Journal of Tourism Economics and Applied Research 3(1) 8-18.  Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337854913_SOCIO-ENVIRONMENT_IMPACT_OF_COASTAL_TOURISM_A_CASE_OF_PASIKUDAH_IN_EAST_COAST_OF_SRI_LANKA
  22. Khan, Shaheed; Swarna M., Freeda Maria & Bhattacharya, K., Ajoy (2024).  Chambal Valley: the Myth, the curse, the legend, the challenges, and the opportunities for Dark Tourism-Case study. DOI: (Eds.). Sharma, Anukrati; Arora, Shruti & Shukla, Parag (2024) Dark Tourism: Theory, Interpretation and Attraction.  Emerald Publication.  https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83797-336-120241012
  23. Klanten, Robert; Gartside, Luke and Flanagan, Rosie, eds. (2022) The Surf Atlas: Iconic Waves and Surfing Hinterlands.  Die Gestalten Verlag.  ISBN: 9783967040585
  24. Kumar, Abhishek; Yadav, Rajni; Patil, Meenu; Kumar, Pradeep; Zhang, Ling; Kaur, Amandeep; Sharma, Sheenu; Hussain, Sabir; Tokas, Diksha & Singh, Anand Narain (2020) Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity in India.  Zhang, Ling (Eds.), Advances in Forest Management under Global Change (pp. 75 – 91). DOI: https://www.doi.org10.5772/intechopen.92435
  25. Ladduwahetty, Ravi (2021, July 22) Arugam Bay to be promoted as global wind surfing destination.  Retrieved from https://archives1.dailynews.lk/2021/07/22/local/254635/arugam-bay-be-promoted-global-wind-surfing-destination
  26. Lakpura (n.d.) Surfing in Arugam Bay.  Retrieved from https://in.lakpura.com/pages/surfing-in-arugam-bay?shpxid=904033ee-3262-4c27-8829-028249ba8242
  27. Laurance, Jeremy (2005, February 10) Rebuilding Mirissa: After the deluge.  Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/rebuilding-mirissa-after-the-deluge-1529808.html
  28. MP Forest (n.d.) Welcome to Madhya Pradesh Ecotourism Development Board. Retrieved from https://mpforest.gov.in/ecotourism/#:~:text=Madhya%20Pradesh%20Ecotourism%20Development%20Board%20is%20an%20autonomous%20organization%20in,program%20of%20the%20Forest%20Department.
  29. Management Plan (n.d.) Integrated Management Plan of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and Biosphere Reserve (2018-2027).  Tamil Nadu Forest Department and Wildlife Institute of India.  Retrieved from https://wii.gov.in/images//images/documents/publications/Draft_Management_Plan_Gulf_of_Mannar_Biosphere_Reserve_Summary.pdf
  30. (MWFRC, n.d.,) Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Resource Conservation (n.d.) Department of Forest Conservation.  Retrieved from https:// www.mwfc.gov.lk/department-of-forest-conservation/
  31. Miththapala, Sriyanie (2011) Guidelines for Community-based Nature Tourism in Sri Lanka, IUCN, and CARE. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303825211_Guidelines_for_Community-based_Nature_Tourism_in_Sri_Lanka
  32. Moseley, G., William & Malwatte, Vinod (2013, October 25) Sri Lanka’s tropical beaches: A development Trap.  Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2013/10/25/sri-lankas-tropical-beaches-a-development-trap
  33. Nanayakkara, P., Ranil (2020, August, 5) To flourish, Sri Lanka’s whale-watching industry must operate responsibly (commentary).  Mongabay.  Retrieved from https://news.mongabay.com/2020/08/to-flourish-sri-lank-whale-watching-industry-must-operate-responsibly-commentary/
  34. Noh, A.N., Mohd; Razzaq, A.R.A.; Mustafa, M.Z.; Nordin, M.N. & Ibrahim, B (2020) Sustainable Community based ecotourism development.  Palarch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 17(9), 5049-5061.  Retrieved from https://archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/view/4740/4674
  35. One Thatch (2023, December 9) Best Kajan Synthetic thatching materials.  Retrieved from https://onethatch.com/blog/best-kajan-synthetic-thatching-materials/
  36. Pattiyagedara S, Shashika and Fernando P, N., Imali (2020) Rural tourism niche-market as a development strategy on rural community: reference to Hiriwadunna village track, Meemure and Heeloya Knuckles Valley tourism village, Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Management Studies, 2(1), 87-103
  37. Petropoulos, Antonis (2018, August 7) Interview: Dr. Palitha Gurusinghe, President Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation.  Retrieved from https://ecoclub.com/headlines/interviews/all-interviews/1176-180807-palitha-gurusinghe 
  38. Phillips, Adrian, (2000), Benefits beyond Boundaries: Taking a broader view about the future of Protected Areas. In the World commission on Protected Areas: Edited by A. Galt, T. Sigary and M. Vinton. Second Southeast Asia Regional Forum, Pakse, Lao PDR, Volume II, IUCN, Vientiane, Lao PDR.
  39. Porter, Gareth; Clemencon, Raymond; Ofosu-Amaah, Waafas; Philips, Michael & Budowski, Gerardo (1998) Study of (Global Environment Facility) GEFs overall performance. World Bank, Washington, DC.  Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/400381468179941343/Study-of-GEFs-overall-performance
  40. RSIS (n.d.) Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and Biosphere Reserve.  RSIS, Ramsar.  Retrieved from https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/42455145/documents/IN2472_mgt220601.pdf
  41. Raisal, Ismail and Gunapalan, Selvarathnam (2014) A Case Study on Tourism Developments in Arugam Bay Tourism Destination from Stakeholders perspective.  Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316284362_A_Case_study_on_Tourism_Developments_in_Arugam_Bay_Tourism_Destination_from_Stakeholders%27Perspective
  42. Ramanathapuram District (n.d.) Ramanathapuram District, Forest, Environment and Climate Change.  Retrieved from https://ramanathapuram.nic.in/departments/forest-environment-climate-change/
  43. Rathnayake, Iraj and Kasim, Azilah (2016) Community Tourism Development Propositions based on empirical evidence from Sri Lanka, BIMP-EAGA Journal for Sustainable Tourism Development, 5(1), 32-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51200/bimpaegajtsd.v5i1.3178
  44. Rohan (2024, June 18) Personal Communication [Discussion].
  45. SLTDA (n.d.) Guideline For Whale and Dolphin Watching.  Retrieved from https://www.sltda.gov.lk/storage/common_media/GuidelineForWhaleandDolphinWatching.pdf
  46. Samarathunga, W. H. M. S., Wimalarathana, and W., Silva, D. A. C. (2015) Community-Based Tourism Management Experience in Sri Lanka, International Research Symposium Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, http://repository.rjt.ac.lk
  47. Sekhar, N., Udaya (2003) Local people’s attitudes towards conservation and wildlife tourism around Sariska Tiger Reserve, India. Journal of Environmental Management, 69(4), 339–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2003.09.002
  48. Sharma, D.K. (n.d.) Joint Forest Management: A Handbook, JICA-MoEF project on: Capacity Development for Forest Management and Training of personnel, ID-P199. Retrieved from http://ifs.nic.in/Dynamic/pdf/JFM%20handbook.pdf
  49. Smith, Neale Bradley; Littlejohns, Lori Baugh & Thompson, Donna (2001) Shaking out the Cobwebs: Insights into Community Capacity and its Relations to Health Outcomes.  Community Development Journal, 36(1), 30 – 41.  DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/36.1.30
  50. Stone, Moren Tibabo (2015) Community-based ecotourism: a collaborative partnerships perspective. Journal of Ecotourism, 14(2–3), 166–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2015.1023309
  51. Swarna, M., Freeda Maria; Khan, Shaheed & Kannan, R (2020) Case Studies of two SPV’s (Special Purpose Vehicles) on select Criterion of Nature-Based Tourism (NBT) and Livelihoods: Agarzari EDC (Eco-Development Committee), Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR), Maharashtra and Theppakadu ETMC (Ecotourism Management Committee), Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR), Tamil Nadu. Paper presented in the International Conference, “Transformational Tourism: Shaping Tourism Narrative of Well-being” organized by Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Jamia Millia Islamia JMI, New Delhi from 6th to 8th March 2020
  52. Swarna, Freeda Maria, M., & Khan, Shaheed (2022) Ecotourism policies, the challenges, and opportunities for the forest departments in India.  International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews. 9(2), 500 – 509. DOI: http://doi.one/10.1729/Journal.29935
  53. Thilakarathne S., and Dassanayake DMC., (2020) Community perspective of rural tourism: A thematic analysis 3rd National Research Symposium on Management. Rajarata University of Sri Lanka - Faculty of Management Studies., Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.  Retrieved from http://repository.rjt.ac.lk/handle/123456789/2921
  54. Tripadvisor (n.d.) Mirissa, Sri Lanka.  Retrieved from https://www.tripadvisor.in/Tourism-g1407334-Mirissa_Southern_Province-Vacations.html
  55. USAID (n.d.) USAID and Sustainable Tourism: Meeting Development Objectives.  Retrieved from https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pdach402.pdf
  56. Urban Development Authority (2020) Tourism Development Master Plan.  Retrieved from https://www.sltda.gov.lk/storage/common_media/Arugambay_Volume_1_PART_B_compressed2827696516.pdf 
  57. Wang, Chin Chin; Carter, Carl & Low Tiffany (2016) Political challenges in community-based ecotourism.  Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(11), 1555–1568. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1125908
  58. Weerasuriya, Sanath (2017, September 21) Sri Lanka, ‘Story of Ecotourism,’ by Palitha Gurusinghe, Daily Mirror.  Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/SriLankaEcotourismFoundation/?locale=ms_MY&_rdr
  59. Weerasekara, Y., N, and Amarawickrama, Susantha (2016) Place-based coastal tourism impacts and residents’ Quality of Life: A Case of Mirissa Coast, Sri Lanka.  International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science. 2(12). 2146-2156. 
  60. Wijerathna, Dhanushka [@danuwijerathna] (2021, March 15) Heeloya is a tourism village famous among local and foreign tourists due to the scenic beauty and the most alluring.  Site name: https://www.tripadvisor.in/AttractionProductReview-g304138-d19255680-Heeloya_Village_Trekking_with_Lunch-Kandy_Kandy_District_Central_Province.html
  61. World Tour (n.d.) Pasikuda Beach.  Retrieved from https://bautyoftheworld.worldpress.com/2018/12/04/pasikuda-beach/

 

Abstract Views: 1
PDF Views: 12

Advanced Search

News/Events

Dr. Moonje Institute...

C.H.M.E. Society's Dr. Moonje Institute of Management and Computer...

Book Title: Convergi...

Title: Converging Horizons in Construction and the Bu...

Update: Reviewer Nam...

Dear Reviewer, Greetings!! We are pleased to inform you that your ...

💐Heartiest Congra...

JPI team extends its heartiest Congratulations to Prof. (Dr.) Thipendr...

Ramachandran Interna...

Ramachandran International Institute of Management (RIIM), Pune Org...

PCETs Pimpri Chinchw...

PCET's Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research Org...

Institute of Managem...

Institute of Management Technology, Nagpur Organizing International...

GENDER CULTURES: Mul...

IIULM University, Milan, Italy Organizing GENDER CULTURES: Mul...

Dept. of MBA, Karnat...

Department of MBA, KLS, Gogte Institute of Technology, Belagavi Org...

Indira School of Bus...

Indira School of Mangement Studies PGDM, Pune Organizing Internatio...

By continuing to use this website, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our Cookie Policy.