Journal Press India^®

Author Details ( * ) denotes Corresponding author

This paper explores employment trends and patterns differently based on the industry’s trade orientation. These employment patterns cover two disadvantaged categories of workers viz., women vis-à-vis men, contract vis-à-vis regular workers. The results suggest that a low trade dependent industry has more employment opportunities for women workers. In comparisons of employment opportunities between women and men workers, a high level of employment disparity is found. Similarly, gap between regular and contract workers have widened after the trade liberalisation. It is found that major industry groups have revealed slightly increasing employment growth during the 1989-1990 to 1999-2000. In the period from 2000-01 to 2005-06, employment growth rates declined by more than two times in Indian manufacturing. This study also finds that employment has reported highest growth in import competing industries; whereas export oriented industries have also reported positive but marginal growth. ​

Keywords

Export oriented; Import competing; Low trade dependence; Employment; Women worker, Contract worker

1. Banga, R. (2005). Impact of liberalization on wages and employment in Indian manufacturing industries. Working Paper No.153, New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
2. Baslevent, C., and Onaran O. (2004). The effect of export-oriented growth on female Labour market outcomes in Turkey. World Development, 32(8): 1375-1393.
3. Batra, A. (2006). India's global trade potential: The gravity model approach. Global Economic Review: Perspectives on East Asian Economies and Industries, 35(3): 327-361.
4. Bernard, A, Jensen J, Redding, SJ and Schott P. (2011). The empirics of firm heterogeneity and international trade. NBER Working Paper No.17627, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research.
5. Chandrasekhar, C.P. and Ghosh J. (2002). The market that failed: A decade of liberal economic reforms in India. New Delhi: Left Word Books.
6. D' Souza, E. (2008). Labour market institutions in India: Their impact on growth and employment. ILO Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series, Geneva: International Labour Organization.
7. Das, DK. (2003). Manufacturing productivity under varying trade regimes: India in the 1980s and 1990s. Working Paper No 107, New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
8. Dholakia, R., Dholakia, B. and Kumar, G. (1992). Issues in strategy for export promotion: An Inter–industry analysis. Economic and Political Weekly, 27(48): 149-155.
9. Fuentes, O. and Gilchrist, S. (2005). Trade orientation and labor market evolution: evidence from Chilean plant-level data. In Jorge E. Restrepo and Andrea Tokman R., Santiago (Ed.), Labour Markets and Institutions (p.411-435), Chile: Central Bank of Chile.
10. Ghose, A. (2000). Trade liberalization and manufacturing employment. Employment Paper No. 2000/3, Geneva: International Labour Organization.
11. Goldar, B. (2000). Employment growth in organised manufacturing in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(14): 191-95.
12. Goldar, B. (2002). Trade liberalization and manufacturing employment: the case of India. Working Paper No. 34, Geneva: International Labour Organization.
13. Haouas, I., Mahmoud, Y. and Heshmati, A. (2005). The impacts of trade liberalization on employment and wages in Tunisian industries. Journal of International Development, 17(4): 527-51.
14. Kapoor, R. (2014). Creating Jobs in India’s Organised Manufacturing Sector. Working paper 286, New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
15. Krugman, P. (1994). Introduction to empirical studies of strategic trade policy. In Paul Krugman and Alasdair Smith (Ed.), Empirical Studies of Strategic Trade Policy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
16. Levinsohn, J. (1999). Employment responses to international liberalization in Chile. Journal of International Economies, 47(2): 321-44.
17. Mani, S. (1991). External liberalization and import dependence: A Note’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26(28):1693-1696.
18. Melitz, M. (2003). The impact of trade on intra-industry reallocations and aggregate industry productivity. Econometrica, 71(6): 1695-1725.
19. Melitz, M., and Redding, S.J. (2012). Heterogeneous firms and international trade. NBER Working Paper 18652, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research
20. Menon, N. and Rodgers, Y. (2009). International trade and the gender wage gap: New evidence from India’s manufacturing sector. World Development, 37(5): 965-81.
21. Mesquita, M. and Najberg, S. (2000). Trade liberalization in Brazil: creating or exporting jobs?. Journal of Development Studies, 30(3): 78-100.
22. Milner C. and Wright, P. (1998). Modelling labour market adjustment to trade liberalisation in an industrialising economy. The Economic Journal, 118 (447): 509-528
23. Nagaraj, R. (2000). Organised manufacturing employment. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(38): 3445-3448.
24. Orbeta A. (2002). Globalization and employment: The impact of trade on employment level and structure in the Philippines. Discussion Paper Series No. 2002-04, Makati City: Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
25. Paul, M. (2014). Import intensity and its impact on export, output and employment. Working Paper No. 167, New Delhi: The institute for Studies in Industrial Development.
26. Pradhan, J.P. (2006). How does trade, foreign investment, and technology affect employment patterns in organized Indian manufacturing?. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 49(2): 249-272.
27. Pradhan, J.P. and Das, K. (2012). Regional origin of manufacturing export: inter-state patterns in India. Journal of Regional Development and Planning, 1(2): 117-167.
28. Rattso, J. and Torvik, R. (1998). Zimbabwean Trade Liberalization: Ex-post Evaluation. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 22(3): 325-346.
29. Revenga, A. (1995). Employment and wage effects of trade liberalization: The case of Mexican manufacturing. Policy Research Working Paper no 1524, Washington DC and World Bank.
30. Roberts, M.J. and Tybout J.R. (1997). The decision to export in Columbia: An empirical model of entry with sunk costs. American Economic Review, 87(4): 545-64.
31. Sankaran, U,. Abraham, V., and Joseph, K.J. (2010). Impact of trade liberalisation on employment: the experience of India’s manufacturing industries. Accessed on dated 26/01/2013 http://www.mse.ac.in/Frontier/i9%20uma.pdf. 
32. Sathe, D. (1997). Import intensity of India’s exports: some fresh evidence. Economic and Political Weekly, 32(8): 31-44.
33. Sen, K. (2008). International trade and manufacturing employment outcomes in India-A comparative study. Research Paper No.2008/87, UNU-WIDER.
34. Sen, S. and Dasgupta, B. (2009). Unfreedom and Waged Work: Labour in India’s manufacturing industry, New Delhi: Sage Publications.
35. Uma, R., and Unni, J. (2004). Unorganised and Organised Manufacturing in India: Potential for Employment Generating Growth. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(41): 4568-4580.
36. UNCTAD (2014). Trade, Gender and the post-2015 development agenda. Policy brief No 3, Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
37. Unni, J. (2003). Economic Reforms and Labour Markets in India: Organised and Unorganised Sectors. In Shuji Uchikawa (Ed.) Labour Market and Institutions in India: 1990s and Beyond, New Delhi: Manohar.
38. Vashisht, P. (2015). Creating manufacturing jobs in India: Has openness to trade really helped?. Working Paper 303, New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
39. Wagner, J. (2004). Export Intensity and Plant Characteristics: What Can We Learn from Quantile Regression?. HWWA Discussion Paper 304.